Back and Next - Back and NextAcademic Digital Divide Inquiry – A Focus on Higher Learning Institutions in Developing and Developed Countries
Tuesday, April 21, 2009
Rationale of the Study
Inadequate access to internet in most developing countries mirrors a distanced academic digital status, which necessitates more emphasis on ICT incorporation in their educational curricula in order to accord opportunities for effective knowledge delivery and reception. In other words, they need such opportunities to match along with the rest of the Global community in embracing the pedagogical paradigm shift in today’s knowledge economy.
Nowadays, educational organisations are rushing upward towards an ICT-enhanced hill. Could this be associated to the production of well trained workforces for both international and local labour markets alongside impressive ROIs? Rosenberg provided us with an answer when he cited Prusak of IBM (1997): "Organisations' one major advantage over others in terms of competitive advantage is their swiftness in knowledge acquisition and its use" [3]. Swiftness of knowledge acquisition and swiftness in use of knowledge are most effective when internet technology is brought into play. Prusak was referring to an advantage that helps harness digital technology for optimal performance.
It is against this backdrop that higher learning institutions in The Gambia and Taiwan are compared with the intent of measuring the nature of their academic digital divide. However, institutional e-learning readiness has been identified as a measure in this process. Institutions are ready for e-learning when they display a high ICT penetration in terms of access to computers and internet, computer and internet skills and attitudes towards internet technology. The study places emphasis on the divide between students by exploring these three readiness dimensions with reference to, a) the significance of the already existing gap between the e-learning readiness of students in the two higher learning institutions; and b) whether there is a possibility of narrowing down that existing gap.
Delimitations and limitations of the Study
Academic digital divide is a broad study. Emphasis is placed on only internet divide which has been further narrowed to use of institutional e-learning readiness as a measure for academic digital penetration. Library information system (LIS) has not been addressed in the study. This is beyond the scope of the study.
The study relies on human development index (HDI) adopted by United Nations (UN) to define developed and developing countries. And even though there are controversies hovering such definitions of human development, correlations of the indices and internet penetration of countries are convincing.
Access, skills and attitudes toward internet are not the only determinants of e-learning readiness. Others such as institutional management and operational issues lurk beyond the scope of this study. However, the selected variables give informative descriptions of students’ readiness status.
Analysis of Data and Discussions
The analysis of the demographic data shows acute gender imbalances in both institutions. Interestingly the number of male participants in The Gambian institution is almost proportionate to the number of female participants in Taiwanese institution. 39% of respondents in The Gambian institution have personal computers but most of these have Processors below Pentium 4. Computer access has been as a major setback in ICT development in some developing countries, The Gambia inclusive [4] [5] [6]. Both median and mean ages of participants from the two institutions fall within 20 and 25 years.
Access: On average participants in Taiwan have more access to computer and internet facilities (M=4.29, SE 0.04) than participants from The Gambia (M=2.43, SE=0.10). The difference is significant t (98.847) = 16.979; p < 0.001. It represents an above large sized effect of r = .86. Most of the students in Taiwan are residing on campus and have unlimited internet access. 88% of research participants have personal computers and Taiwan as a country has a very impressive internet penetration ranking in the world [7].
Skills: On average participants in Taiwan have more computer and internet skills (M=4.46, SE 0.06) than participants from The Gambia (M=3.41, SE=0.13). The difference is significant t (107.82) = 7.238; p < 0.001. It represents a large sized effect of r = .57.
In the area of basic computer and internet skills there is a large difference which can be related to constant use of computers in the Taiwanese institution. The Gambian institution’s low penetration is attributable to limited contact period due to low internet penetration in the country [4] [1] [8], a phenomenon in the developing world.
Attitude: On average participants in Taiwan have lower positive attitude towards internet technology (M=3.464, SE=0.066) than participants from The Gambia (M=3.757, SE 0.087). The difference is significant t (148) =-2.679; p < 0.05. It represents a near medium effect of r = 0.23 which accounts for less than 9% effect on the significance.
However, result on attitudes has proven the other way round.
It could be deduced that unlimited internet access influences attitudes which may likely affect students’ academic work. Further research is recommended to look for a possible relationship between these two. On the other hand, attitude towards internet technology of participants in the Gambian institution substantiates findings of Farrell and Isaacs in Survey of ICT and Education in Africa [4] which reported positive attitudes towards welcoming prospects of ICT in education.
The gap however, is wider at the points of access to computer and internet. This is lower ICT infrastructural development in The Gambian institution as compared to the pair. It is therefore in agreement with related literature [9] [8] [6]. On the issue of internet security the gap is narrowed toward the average readiness point for Gambian participants. All two groups of participants are not very comfortable with their internet security. The gap again widens in the area of availability and use of key software that are useful in digital learning or web-based learning environment. These are speakers, webcams, audio devices, etc., but again The Gambian institution did not perform badly, which is attributable to type of computers used in their laboratories (PCs with up-to-date tools).
Even though the gap is wide in the skills dimension, The Gambian institution has not been very far apart, except in areas related to use of online tools, such as chatting and conferencing using videos, and relating information from audiovisual tools. Reportedly, few students among The Gambian participants are exposed to such facilities. Nonetheless, the institution scores an average point of three.
Unlimited access to internet may cause distractions. Most participants in the Taiwanese institution prefer to leave aside their academic work due to online distractions like emailing and website surfing, or even offline distractions such as televisions. On the other hand participants from The Gambian institution place much importance on academic work in the face of such distractions. They have equal scores on email browsing, importance of internet technology in education process, and equal importance on both e-learning and face-to-face pedagogies.
Therefore, a conclusive answer to research question one is that there is academic digital divide between students in The Gambian institution and Taiwanese institution only in the dimensions of access to computer and internet, and computer and internet skills. The gap however, is wider in the access dimension due to lower infrastructural development. In the skills dimension even though there is a gap, it does not negate the fact that students in The Gambian institution are ready for internet or web-based education like other students in the developed world.
For research question two, it should be noted that it would be quite difficult to close the gap between these two institutions. The cost of internet must still have to come down in The Gambia. Even though The Gambia has one of the cheapest rates in the developing world, it is noteworthy that most vendors rate their prices in accordance with what is considered cheap in the developed world.
Recommendations
From the review of literature and expert opinion the researcher advances some recommendations that are meant to narrow the academic digital gap between students of the two institutions in The Gambia and Taiwan despite the high tides:
Access: All the experts and a number of reviewed papers stressed on the provision of more computers and consistent internet access for students. Besides, Governments’ contributions philanthropic organisations should focus attention on knowledge development, and help in creating access to distributed knowledge in developing communities. The experts have divided opinions on bandwidth increment for better access to multimedia materials and downloading opportunities.
While some downplayed it on the basis that digital learning is not all about multimedia materials, majority of experts cited it as a critical issue in the quest for richer instructional content.
In the Taiwanese institution there is good wireless and wired network services [10]. This surfaced in the expert recommendations and further recommended the use of solar-powered digital learning systems [6]. The policy change that promotes ICT incorporation in schools in The Gambia should be re-emphasised. Collaboration of higher institutions in The Gambia has been cited as an efficient way of managing bandwidth.
Skills: Experts recommended the need for professional development in the area of internet/digital learning. This is in total agreement with the related literature [11]. The institution in The Gambia should teach internet and computer skills as 100-level courses and make it a requirement for those without the basics. More support should be given to Human Resource Unit on ICT and Training in The Gambian institution to create an ICT subject matter experts base for both lecturer and student development.
Attitude: In order to inculcate the right attitude towards digital or internet education the experts agree on University Management’s commitment on creation of incentives in relation of ICT promotion in education. These incentives will depend on certain motivating factors. Awareness campaign is another strategy for attitudinal change. Much could be done about the current academic digital gap should the aforementioned recommendations be addressed. Likewise, more researches in a bid to promoting academic and workforce education excellences in developing world such as The Gambia is a possible way of addressing the divide.
Researcher: Yusupha Touray, Graduate Student, Supervisor:
Dr Chih-Chien Lai, Associate Professor and Director
Institute of Int’l Workforce Education and Development/Institute of Int’l Human Resource Development, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Inadequate access to internet in most developing countries mirrors a distanced academic digital status, which necessitates more emphasis on ICT incorporation in their educational curricula in order to accord opportunities for effective knowledge delivery and reception. In other words, they need such opportunities to match along with the rest of the Global community in embracing the pedagogical paradigm shift in today’s knowledge economy.
Nowadays, educational organisations are rushing upward towards an ICT-enhanced hill. Could this be associated to the production of well trained workforces for both international and local labour markets alongside impressive ROIs? Rosenberg provided us with an answer when he cited Prusak of IBM (1997): "Organisations' one major advantage over others in terms of competitive advantage is their swiftness in knowledge acquisition and its use" [3]. Swiftness of knowledge acquisition and swiftness in use of knowledge are most effective when internet technology is brought into play. Prusak was referring to an advantage that helps harness digital technology for optimal performance.
It is against this backdrop that higher learning institutions in The Gambia and Taiwan are compared with the intent of measuring the nature of their academic digital divide. However, institutional e-learning readiness has been identified as a measure in this process. Institutions are ready for e-learning when they display a high ICT penetration in terms of access to computers and internet, computer and internet skills and attitudes towards internet technology. The study places emphasis on the divide between students by exploring these three readiness dimensions with reference to, a) the significance of the already existing gap between the e-learning readiness of students in the two higher learning institutions; and b) whether there is a possibility of narrowing down that existing gap.
Delimitations and limitations of the Study
Academic digital divide is a broad study. Emphasis is placed on only internet divide which has been further narrowed to use of institutional e-learning readiness as a measure for academic digital penetration. Library information system (LIS) has not been addressed in the study. This is beyond the scope of the study.
The study relies on human development index (HDI) adopted by United Nations (UN) to define developed and developing countries. And even though there are controversies hovering such definitions of human development, correlations of the indices and internet penetration of countries are convincing.
Access, skills and attitudes toward internet are not the only determinants of e-learning readiness. Others such as institutional management and operational issues lurk beyond the scope of this study. However, the selected variables give informative descriptions of students’ readiness status.
Analysis of Data and Discussions
The analysis of the demographic data shows acute gender imbalances in both institutions. Interestingly the number of male participants in The Gambian institution is almost proportionate to the number of female participants in Taiwanese institution. 39% of respondents in The Gambian institution have personal computers but most of these have Processors below Pentium 4. Computer access has been as a major setback in ICT development in some developing countries, The Gambia inclusive [4] [5] [6]. Both median and mean ages of participants from the two institutions fall within 20 and 25 years.
Access: On average participants in Taiwan have more access to computer and internet facilities (M=4.29, SE 0.04) than participants from The Gambia (M=2.43, SE=0.10). The difference is significant t (98.847) = 16.979; p < 0.001. It represents an above large sized effect of r = .86. Most of the students in Taiwan are residing on campus and have unlimited internet access. 88% of research participants have personal computers and Taiwan as a country has a very impressive internet penetration ranking in the world [7].
Skills: On average participants in Taiwan have more computer and internet skills (M=4.46, SE 0.06) than participants from The Gambia (M=3.41, SE=0.13). The difference is significant t (107.82) = 7.238; p < 0.001. It represents a large sized effect of r = .57.
In the area of basic computer and internet skills there is a large difference which can be related to constant use of computers in the Taiwanese institution. The Gambian institution’s low penetration is attributable to limited contact period due to low internet penetration in the country [4] [1] [8], a phenomenon in the developing world.
Attitude: On average participants in Taiwan have lower positive attitude towards internet technology (M=3.464, SE=0.066) than participants from The Gambia (M=3.757, SE 0.087). The difference is significant t (148) =-2.679; p < 0.05. It represents a near medium effect of r = 0.23 which accounts for less than 9% effect on the significance.
However, result on attitudes has proven the other way round.
It could be deduced that unlimited internet access influences attitudes which may likely affect students’ academic work. Further research is recommended to look for a possible relationship between these two. On the other hand, attitude towards internet technology of participants in the Gambian institution substantiates findings of Farrell and Isaacs in Survey of ICT and Education in Africa [4] which reported positive attitudes towards welcoming prospects of ICT in education.
The gap however, is wider at the points of access to computer and internet. This is lower ICT infrastructural development in The Gambian institution as compared to the pair. It is therefore in agreement with related literature [9] [8] [6]. On the issue of internet security the gap is narrowed toward the average readiness point for Gambian participants. All two groups of participants are not very comfortable with their internet security. The gap again widens in the area of availability and use of key software that are useful in digital learning or web-based learning environment. These are speakers, webcams, audio devices, etc., but again The Gambian institution did not perform badly, which is attributable to type of computers used in their laboratories (PCs with up-to-date tools).
Even though the gap is wide in the skills dimension, The Gambian institution has not been very far apart, except in areas related to use of online tools, such as chatting and conferencing using videos, and relating information from audiovisual tools. Reportedly, few students among The Gambian participants are exposed to such facilities. Nonetheless, the institution scores an average point of three.
Unlimited access to internet may cause distractions. Most participants in the Taiwanese institution prefer to leave aside their academic work due to online distractions like emailing and website surfing, or even offline distractions such as televisions. On the other hand participants from The Gambian institution place much importance on academic work in the face of such distractions. They have equal scores on email browsing, importance of internet technology in education process, and equal importance on both e-learning and face-to-face pedagogies.
Therefore, a conclusive answer to research question one is that there is academic digital divide between students in The Gambian institution and Taiwanese institution only in the dimensions of access to computer and internet, and computer and internet skills. The gap however, is wider in the access dimension due to lower infrastructural development. In the skills dimension even though there is a gap, it does not negate the fact that students in The Gambian institution are ready for internet or web-based education like other students in the developed world.
For research question two, it should be noted that it would be quite difficult to close the gap between these two institutions. The cost of internet must still have to come down in The Gambia. Even though The Gambia has one of the cheapest rates in the developing world, it is noteworthy that most vendors rate their prices in accordance with what is considered cheap in the developed world.
Recommendations
From the review of literature and expert opinion the researcher advances some recommendations that are meant to narrow the academic digital gap between students of the two institutions in The Gambia and Taiwan despite the high tides:
Access: All the experts and a number of reviewed papers stressed on the provision of more computers and consistent internet access for students. Besides, Governments’ contributions philanthropic organisations should focus attention on knowledge development, and help in creating access to distributed knowledge in developing communities. The experts have divided opinions on bandwidth increment for better access to multimedia materials and downloading opportunities.
While some downplayed it on the basis that digital learning is not all about multimedia materials, majority of experts cited it as a critical issue in the quest for richer instructional content.
In the Taiwanese institution there is good wireless and wired network services [10]. This surfaced in the expert recommendations and further recommended the use of solar-powered digital learning systems [6]. The policy change that promotes ICT incorporation in schools in The Gambia should be re-emphasised. Collaboration of higher institutions in The Gambia has been cited as an efficient way of managing bandwidth.
Skills: Experts recommended the need for professional development in the area of internet/digital learning. This is in total agreement with the related literature [11]. The institution in The Gambia should teach internet and computer skills as 100-level courses and make it a requirement for those without the basics. More support should be given to Human Resource Unit on ICT and Training in The Gambian institution to create an ICT subject matter experts base for both lecturer and student development.
Attitude: In order to inculcate the right attitude towards digital or internet education the experts agree on University Management’s commitment on creation of incentives in relation of ICT promotion in education. These incentives will depend on certain motivating factors. Awareness campaign is another strategy for attitudinal change. Much could be done about the current academic digital gap should the aforementioned recommendations be addressed. Likewise, more researches in a bid to promoting academic and workforce education excellences in developing world such as The Gambia is a possible way of addressing the divide.
Researcher: Yusupha Touray, Graduate Student, Supervisor:
Dr Chih-Chien Lai, Associate Professor and Director
Institute of Int’l Workforce Education and Development/Institute of Int’l Human Resource Development, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Author: Yusupha Touray, Graduate Student,
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